It is important to be able to write decriptively. You need to be able to define, describe, categorise and narrate. However, it is not enough for work in higher education. In the words of Nash (1990, p. 10),
The student who gives only the facts, with no assessment or interpretation, gets poor marks.
Therefore, as well as writing descriptively, you need to be able to write critically. As well as giving the facts, you need to be able to make use of these facts to come to general conclusions. These conclusions need to be justified and supported by evidence. You also need to be aware of other points of view that exist and this must be dealt with. So you need to describe other people's points of view and compare and contrast them with your own, stating their advantages and disadvantages. In this way you can analyse and evaluate your work and others and come to a balanced conclusion.
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom of the University of Chicago developed a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour which is considered important in learning. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract levels, to the highest level which is classified as evaluation. Most university level writing needs to involve writing at this high level.
The six categories are listed below. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place (Bloom, 1956, pp. 201-207).
Category |
Key Words |
Associated Questions |
Typical Question Instructions |
|
Evaluation: |
e.g. appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticises, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarises, supports. |
Do you agree with the actions/outcomes ...? What is your opinion of ...? How would you prove/disprove ...? Evaluate the outcome.... |
advise |
|
Synthesis: |
e.g. categorises, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organises, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganises, revises, rewrites, summarises, tells, writes. |
What changes would you make to solve ...? What would happen if ...? Can you elaborate on the reason ...? |
arrange compose construct create design formulate manage organise plan prepare set up |
|
Analysis: |
e.g. analyses, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. |
What are the parts or features of ...? How is _______ related to ...? Can you show connection between ...? How would you compare/contrast ...? |
analyse calculate categorise compare contrast criticise debate differentiate discuss distinguish examine experiment inspect question relate solve test |
|
Application: |
e.g. applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. |
How would you use ...? What examples can you find to ...? Can you relate this information to the present situation? |
apply |
|
Comprehension: |
e.g. comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalises, gives examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarises, translates. |
How would you classify the type of ...? What was the text about? Can you summarise the author's point of view? |
classify |
|
Knowledge: |
e.g. defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, quotes, recalls, recognises, reproduces, selects, shows, states. |
What is ...? How is ...? Where is ...? When did _______ happen? |
define list name recall record relate repeat state underline |
Writing critically means writing at the highest levels. Therefore, in most academic writing it is important to analyse and evaluate. Simple description is usually not enough (Woodward-Kron, 2002).
This means making connections between theory and practice, drawing links between theories, as well as evaluating theories and research. It means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have learned. Critical evaluation requires you to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your evaluation.
When writing critically, you need to:
Read the following example: Example 1.
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
As well as writing descriptively, you need to be able to write critically; you need to be able to make use of these facts to come to general conclusions. These conclusions need to be justified and supported by evidence. You also need to be aware of other points of view that exist and these must be dealt with. So you need to describe other people's points of view and compare and contrast them with your own, stating their advantages and disadvantages. In this way you can analyse and evaluate your work and others and come to a balanced conclusion. The following may be useful:
It is important to read critically. Critical reading requires you to evaluate the arguments in the text. You need to distinguish fact from opinion, and look at arguments given for and against the various claims.
See: Reading critically
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way.
See: Reporting
You need to be able to make use of facts to come to general conclusions. You need to argue and discuss.
You need to be aware that other points of view exists and deal with this.
One thing that you learn in highereducation is how to apply what you are learning to the real world. It is an essential part of writing ctitically as defined by Bloom.
See Application
When you are working with other people's ideas, you will compare and contrast the different ideas and your own, discussing advantages and disadvantages.
You will need to summarise other people's ideas, combine them and come to conclusions.
In most cases, the conclusions you come to and the points of view you hold will be qualified and generalisations will be made.
See: Generalising
You may also have different degrees of certainty about your claims.
You need to provide evidence to support your points of view and conclusions.
See: Providing support
You can use examples to support your conclusions.
See: Giving examples
And you will always give reasons and explanations for your claims and points of view.
You need to recognise and work with other people's points of view. Within all these opinions, you need to make yours clear.
You need to make sure that your point of view shows through clearly.
See: Taking a stance
At various stages during your writing, you will need to sum up your argument and come to a conclusion.
See: Drawing conclusions